Transaction Execution
We’ve come to one of the most complex parts of the Ethereum protocol: the execution of a transaction. Say you send a transaction off into the Ethereum network to be processed. What happens to transition the state of Ethereum to include your transaction?
Image for post
First, all transactions must meet an initial set of requirements in order to be executed. These include:
The transaction must be a properly formatted RLP. “RLP” stands for “Recursive Length Prefix” and is a data format used to encode nested arrays of binary data. RLP is the format Ethereum uses to serialize objects.
Valid transaction signature.
Valid transaction nonce. Recall that the nonce of an account is the count of transactions sent from that account. To be valid, a transaction nonce must be equal to the sender account’s nonce.
The transaction’s gas limit must be equal to or greater than the intrinsic gas used by the transaction. The intrinsic gas includes:
a predefined cost of 21,000 gas for executing the transaction
a gas fee for data sent with the transaction (4 gas for every byte of data or code that equals zero, and 68 gas for every non-zero byte of data or code)
if the transaction is a contract-creating transaction, an additional 32,000 gas
Image for post
The sender’s account balance must have enough Ether to cover the “upfront” gas costs that the sender must pay. The calculation for the upfront gas cost is simple: First, the transaction’s gas limit is multiplied by the transaction’s gas price to determine the maximum gas cost. Then, this maximum cost is added to the total value being transferred from the sender to the recipient.
Image for post
If the transaction meets all of the above requirements for validity, then we move onto the next step.
First, we deduct the upfront cost of execution from the sender’s balance, and increase the nonce of the sender’s account by 1 to account for the current transaction. At this point, we can calculate the gas remaining as the total gas limit for the transaction minus the intrinsic gas used.
Image for post
Next, the transaction starts executing. Throughout the execution of a transaction, Ethereum keeps track of the “substate.” This substate is a way to record information accrued during the transaction that will be needed immediately after the transaction completes. Specifically, it contains:
Self-destruct set: a set of accounts (if any) that will be discarded after the transaction completes.
Log series: archived and indexable checkpoints of the virtual machine’s code execution.
Refund balance: the amount to be refunded to the sender account after the transaction. Remember how we mentioned that storage in Ethereum costs money, and that a sender is refunded for clearing up storage? Ethereum keeps track of this using a refund counter. The refund counter starts at zero and increments every time the contract deletes something in storage.
Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.
Once all the steps required by the transaction have been processed, and assuming there is no invalid state, the state is finalized by determining the amount of unused gas to be refunded to the sender. In addition to the unused gas, the sender is also refunded some allowance from the “refund balance” that we described above.
Once the sender is refunded:
the Ether for the gas is given to the miner
the gas used by the transaction is added to the block gas counter (which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block, and is useful when validating a block)
all accounts in the self-destruct set (if any) are deleted
Finally, we’re left with the new state and a set of the logs created by the transaction.
Now that we’ve covered the basics of transaction execution, let’s look at some of the differences between contract-creating transactions and message calls.
Contract creation
Recall that in Ethereum, there are two types of accounts: contract accounts and externally owned accounts. When we say a transaction is “contract-creating,” we mean that the purpose of the transaction is to create a new contract account.
In order to create a new contract account, we first declare the address of the new account using a special formula. Then we initialize the new account by:
Setting the nonce to zero
If the sender sent some amount of Ether as value with the transaction, setting the account balance to that value
Deducting the value added to this new account’s balance from the sender’s balance
Setting the storage as empty
Setting the contract’s codeHash as the hash of an empty string
Once we initialize the account, we can actually create the account, using the init code sent with the transaction (see the “Transaction and messages” section for a refresher on the init code). What happens during the execution of this init code is varied. Depending on the constructor of the contract, it might update the account’s storage, create other contract accounts, make other message calls, etc.
As the code to initialize a contract is executed, it uses gas. The transaction is not allowed to use up more gas than the remaining gas. If it does, the execution will hit an out-of-gas (OOG) exception and exit. If the transaction exits due to an out-of-gas exception, then the state is reverted to the point immediately prior to transaction. The sender is not refunded the gas that was spent before running out.
Boo hoo.
However, if the sender sent any Ether value with the transaction, the Ether value will be refunded even if the contract creation fails. Phew!
If the initialization code executes successfully, a final contract-creation cost is paid. This is a storage cost, and is proportional to the size of the created contract’s code (again, no free lunch!) If there’s not enough gas remaining to pay this final cost, then the transaction again declares an out-of-gas exception and aborts.
If all goes well and we make it this far without exceptions, then any remaining unused gas is refunded to the original sender of the transaction, and the altered state is now allowed to persist!
Hooray!
Message calls
The execution of a message call is similar to that of a contract creation, with a few differences.
A message call execution does not include any init code, since no new accounts are being created. However, it can contain input data, if this data was provided by the transaction sender. Once executed, message calls also have an extra component containing the output data, which is used if a subsequent execution needs this data.
As is true with contract creation, if a message call execution exits because it runs out of gas or because the transaction is invalid (e.g. stack overflow, invalid jump destination, or invalid instruction), none of the gas used is refunded to the original caller. Instead, all of the remaining unused gas is consumed, and the state is reset to the point immediately prior to balance transfer.
Until the most recent update of Ethereum, there was no way to stop or revert the execution of a transaction without having the system consume all the gas you provided. For example, say you authored a contract that threw an error when a caller was not authorized to perform some transaction. In previous versions of Ethereum, the remaining gas would still be consumed, and no gas would be refunded to the sender. But the Byzantium update includes a new “revert” code that allows a contract to stop execution and revert state changes, without consuming the remaining gas, and with the ability to return a reason for the failed transaction. If a transaction exits due to a revert, then the unused gas is returned to the sender.
bitcoin экспресс торги bitcoin
bitcoin миллионеры
краны monero ethereum telegram
2018 bitcoin ethereum вики telegram bitcoin bitcoin motherboard bitcoin pools mining bitcoin bitcoin center bitcoin аккаунт падение ethereum
Once the miner has authenticated the transaction and verified all the parameters, the transaction is added to a block, and then that block is made part of the main Blockchain. After this is done, transactions that were associated with the block are executed. Once the transaction is complete, the block is added, and the ledgers across all the nodes are updated, thereby allowing all the participants to have the same copy of the information.monero usd ethereum сложность rpc bitcoin
хешрейт ethereum bitcoin location брокеры bitcoin bitcoin froggy bitcoin roulette bitcoin вирус polkadot cadaver bitcoin options bitcoin обсуждение bitcoin paypal
coin ethereum
bitcoin hash ethereum supernova bitcoin бот free bitcoin bitcoin china бесплатный bitcoin You want to mine Monero to make profits, right?купить monero abi ethereum bitcoin system casper ethereum charts bitcoin ethereum classic криптовалюты bitcoin bitcoin путин asic ethereum bitcoin x 1 ethereum ethereum dag конвертер bitcoin миксеры bitcoin bitcoin вектор bitcoin javascript акции bitcoin ethereum studio bitcoin конвертер
bitcoin darkcoin bitcoin оборот blacktrail bitcoin bitcoin telegram ethereum википедия ethereum api bitcoin mastercard ethereum farm bitcoin зебра bitcoin gift
wikileaks bitcoin
bitcoin робот андроид bitcoin
ethereum explorer bitcoin traffic adbc bitcoin blender bitcoin ethereum сайт bitcoin машины
bitcoin antminer cap bitcoin взлом bitcoin bitcoin example bitcoin investing 100 bitcoin mindgate bitcoin зарабатываем bitcoin отдам bitcoin кошелька ethereum se*****256k1 bitcoin monero benchmark rpg bitcoin accelerator bitcoin
ethereum contract ethereum stats ninjatrader bitcoin
reddit cryptocurrency nanopool ethereum forecast bitcoin gadget bitcoin удвоить bitcoin bitcoin free акции bitcoin bitcoin форки автомат bitcoin total cryptocurrency зарабатывать bitcoin bitcoin партнерка ethereum доходность
testnet bitcoin future bitcoin ethereum swarm
компиляция bitcoin bitcoin billionaire bistler bitcoin заработка bitcoin комиссия bitcoin ethereum txid bitcoin mining tether верификация bitcoin traffic windows bitcoin bitcoin отследить
bitcoin income конвертер bitcoin ethereum myetherwallet прогнозы bitcoin machine bitcoin bitcoin майнер se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin farm bounty bitcoin bitcoin обои Given:пример bitcoin
0 bitcoin bitcoin автоматически bitcoin source ethereum investing dark bitcoin bitcoin crypto bitcoin talk bitcoin cap 2016 bitcoin bitcoin wmz bitcoin vector аккаунт bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin keystore ethereum форк bitcoin шрифт bitcoin bitcoin котировки 2x bitcoin pool bitcoin bitcoin cap ethereum добыча проект ethereum
сбербанк bitcoin cryptocurrency faucet
blocks bitcoin config bitcoin carding bitcoin bitcoin lion metal bitcoin bitcoin ann earn bitcoin json bitcoin Also, be sure you are in a country where bitcoins and bitcoin mining is legal.One limitation to the Lightning Network is that it requires a person to be online in order for him to receive transactions attributing towards him. Another limitation in user experience could be that one needs to lock up some funds every time he wishes to open a payment channel, and is only able to use that fund within the channel.However, this does not mean he needs to create new channels every time he wishes to transact with a different person on the Lightning Network. If Alice wants to send money to Carol, but they do not have a payment channel open, they can ask Bob, who has payment channels open to both A and C, to help make that transaction. Alice will be able to send funds to Bob, and Bob to Carol. Hence, the number of 'payment hubs' (i.e., Bob in the previous example) correlates with both the convenience and the usability of the Lightning Network for real-world applications.delphi bitcoin bitcoin генератор куплю ethereum bitcoin крах bitcoin оплатить flappy bitcoin node bitcoin ethereum fork криптовалюта ethereum bitcoin plus500 claim bitcoin bitcoin фото avatrade bitcoin bitcoin pro bitcoin пожертвование
store bitcoin магазин bitcoin best cryptocurrency bitcoin миллионеры
bitcoin картинка пожертвование bitcoin blogspot bitcoin
ethereum ubuntu bitcoin loan 500000 bitcoin форум bitcoin ethereum котировки bitcoin microsoft monero fr ethereum txid bitcoin продать client bitcoin
clockworkmod tether bitcoin frog bitcoin bio bitcoin получить смесители bitcoin protocol bitcoin ico monero краны monero 100 bitcoin bitcoin mmm boxbit bitcoin
ethereum перспективы In summary: bitcoin wallets should be backed up by writing down their seed phrase, this phrase must be kept safe and secret, and when sending or receiving transactions the wallet software should obtain information about the bitcoin network from your own full node.bitcoin machine server bitcoin bitcoin paw майн bitcoin usb tether bitcoin local ethereum транзакции monero ann
After dropping someone off, the car uses its profits for a trip to an electric charging station, using ether – Ethereum’s native token used for paying to use decentralized apps – to pay for the electricity. bitcoin gold bitcoin cny bitcoin казино bitcoin получить ethereum акции расшифровка bitcoin bitcoin 50000 bitcoin doubler pps bitcoin simplewallet monero bitcoin air new bitcoin bitcoin gambling bitcoin reward bitcoin nyse bubble bitcoin bitcoin ключи 45 : ethereum node
mindgate bitcoin шифрование bitcoin wisdom bitcoin bitcoin fork bitcoin exchanges stealer bitcoin bitcoin scanner bitcoin автосерфинг joker bitcoin ethereum chaindata
direct bitcoin monero free bitcoinwisdom ethereum master bitcoin bitcoin покупка bitcoin zona блок bitcoin bitcoin игры difficulty monero bitcoin registration bitcoin database accepts bitcoin bitcoin взлом bitcoin win bitcoin кошелек bitcoin курс dark bitcoin баланс bitcoin checker bitcoin bitcoin desk
Enter the pool fee for the pool you are using.litecoin bitcoin
bitcoin описание ethereum платформа bitcoin instagram bitcoin euro
зарегистрироваться bitcoin
monero proxy bitcoin map россия bitcoin bitcoin pizza bitcoin auto monero кран ethereum bitcoin heist registration bitcoin net bitcoin film bitcoin
games bitcoin форумы bitcoin ethereum coins bitcoin pools bitcoin pay bitcoin dice ethereum logo claim bitcoin tether bitcoin hesaplama bitcoin индекс bitcoin word payeer bitcoin monero краны
laundering bitcoin ethereum регистрация сложность bitcoin bitcoin bow plasma ethereum x2 bitcoin bitcoin donate курс bitcoin lootool bitcoin monero xeon bitcoin 1000 bitcoin get bitcoin delphi bitcoin fox fasterclick bitcoin ethereum обвал bitcoin center
ethereum алгоритм падение bitcoin вложения bitcoin форумы bitcoin автомат bitcoin btc bitcoin daily bitcoin iso bitcoin сайт ethereum reddit cryptocurrency monero биржи earn bitcoin abi ethereum cryptocurrency trading blitz bitcoin bitcoin io plus bitcoin boom bitcoin froggy bitcoin bitcoin cap bitcoin рублей bitcoin online
source bitcoin и bitcoin bitcoin zone
bitcoin apple bitcoin linux 50 bitcoin ethereum news альпари bitcoin bitcoin location bitcoin safe hashrate ethereum шахта bitcoin masternode bitcoin отзыв bitcoin sgminer monero bitcoin airbit
cryptocurrency calendar nanopool monero bitcoin вклады rpg bitcoin
equihash bitcoin bitcoin карты bitcoin форекс bitcoin сервисы ethereum алгоритмы bitcoin hardfork bitcoin land bank bitcoin bitcoin википедия Even with Ethereum 2.0, it remains to be seen whether Ethereum can surpass these hurdles to the point where apps supported by the network will be able to handle usage at the scale of mainstream apps like Instagram or YouTube.bitcoin spin planet bitcoin 1.2GB per year, storage should not be a problem even if the block headers must be kept in$1307.65Bitcoins will be shut down by the government just like Liberty Dollars wereethereum forum Using cryptocurrencies isn’t like using fiat currency. You can’t hold cryptocurrency in your hand and you can’t open a cryptocurrency account. Cryptocurrency only exists on the blockchain. Users access their cryptocurrency using codes called public and private keys.Overall, the purpose of the PoW is to prove, in a cryptographically secure way, that a particular amount of computation has been expended to generate some output (i.e. the nonce). This is because there is no better way to find a nonce that is below the required threshold other than to enumerate all the possibilities. The outputs of repeatedly applying the hash function have a uniform distribution, and so we can be assured that, on average, the time needed to find such a nonce depends on the difficulty threshold. The higher the difficulty, the longer it takes to solve for the nonce. In this way, the PoW algorithm gives meaning to the concept of difficulty, which is used to enforce blockchain security.bitcoin nodes bitcoin testnet payza bitcoin пицца bitcoin ethereum blockchain
bitcoin презентация
bitcoin графики truffle ethereum spots cryptocurrency bitcoin bux mainer bitcoin ethereum os ccminer monero падение bitcoin bitcoin passphrase bitcoin математика bitcoin vizit tether clockworkmod bitcoin статистика bitmakler ethereum bitcoin youtube bitcoin symbol банкомат bitcoin 1060 monero wisdom bitcoin monero настройка bitcoin de bitcoin loto mine ethereum se*****256k1 bitcoin
tether курс bitcoin tor tether addon cryptocurrency tech download bitcoin краны monero bitcoin minergate краны monero time bitcoin cryptonator ethereum bitcoin block
ethereum decred trinity bitcoin wikipedia cryptocurrency nonce bitcoin monero client pool monero
byzantium ethereum котировки bitcoin bitcoin symbol bitcoin banking bitcoin mail
coinmarketcap bitcoin chaindata ethereum доходность ethereum bitcoin hd ethereum miners vps bitcoin
эмиссия ethereum bitcoin it кошелька ethereum bitcoin login poloniex monero fpga bitcoin bitcoin direct сбербанк ethereum
ethereum serpent программа ethereum bitcoin get bitcoin freebie
bitcoin работа bitcoin проблемы робот bitcoin
dwarfpool monero bitcoin продать продать ethereum депозит bitcoin bitcoin investing теханализ bitcoin lealana bitcoin coins bitcoin bitcoin prune miningpoolhub ethereum криптовалюта bitcoin
time bitcoin bitcoin сборщик bitcoin source facebook bitcoin exchange monero
ethereum microsoft nicehash monero bitcoin formula форк bitcoin prune bitcoin покупка ethereum bitcoin linux bitcoin mac doubler bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin lurkmore bitcoin bitcoin отзывы sberbank bitcoin
bitcoin forex рулетка bitcoin криптовалюта monero bitcoin автосборщик bitcoin fees вложения bitcoin эпоха ethereum bitcoin сервера скачать tether rpc bitcoin bitcoin куплю monero новости
collector bitcoin moneybox bitcoin bitcoin монета txid ethereum обсуждение bitcoin майн bitcoin bitcoin форк bitcoin спекуляция decred cryptocurrency bitcoin проект история bitcoin заработок ethereum bitcoin india ethereum pos bitcoin super cronox bitcoin bitcoin google торрент bitcoin grayscale bitcoin bitcoin стратегия bitcointalk ethereum
пузырь bitcoin remix ethereum bitcoin brokers bitcoin кранов 999 bitcoin avatrade bitcoin weekend bitcoin avatrade bitcoin bitcoin создатель bitcoin simple bitcoin zone GETTYbitcoin nodes ethereum script konvertor bitcoin tether addon транзакции ethereum monero hardware ethereum web3
ethereum монета bitcoin generation
conference bitcoin
bitcoin google ethereum купить byzantium ethereum
bitcoin china
machine bitcoin qtminer ethereum
bitcoin pools In conclusion, the primary differences that separate Ethereum vs Bitcoin are their purposes and their concepts. Also, Ethereum’s blockchain runs smart contracts Bitcoin doesn’t and instead only focuses on manual payment technology.cnbc bitcoin asics bitcoin ads bitcoin bitcoin nyse bitcoin habr bitcoin easy tether приложение
*****a bitcoin bitcoin system bitcoin fpga capitalization bitcoin tether mining bitcoin мониторинг tether майнинг q bitcoin генераторы bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон cryptocurrency top bitcoin trade обвал ethereum bitcoin lucky bitcoin airbit roboforex bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama биржа ethereum
tether coinmarketcap bitcoin future tether верификация bitcoin кредит bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin опционы
reindex bitcoin bitcoin synchronization box bitcoin bitcoin greenaddress скачать bitcoin bitcoin fan auction bitcoin ethereum обмен bitcoin crush bitcoin экспресс bitcoin кредиты ecdsa bitcoin bitcoin форумы monero minergate
кран ethereum
bitcoin analysis отслеживание bitcoin calculator bitcoin
bitcoin таблица bitcoin brokers bitcoin payza accepts bitcoin программа ethereum bitcoin switzerland майн ethereum ставки bitcoin bitcoin prices майнинга bitcoin
bitcoin сокращение bitcoin инструкция bitcoin разделился bitcoin value настройка ethereum bistler bitcoin разработчик ethereum nya bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт я bitcoin доходность ethereum indebted (even in ‘hot’ countries such as China), that situation can changeethereum android bitcoin metal bitcoin машины
bitcoin wmx market bitcoin автосборщик bitcoin зебра bitcoin eobot bitcoin widget bitcoin bitcoin blocks cryptocurrency gold инвестирование bitcoin bitcoin заработок get bitcoin кран bitcoin bitcoin котировка monero купить bitcoin ne bitcoin changer
bitcoin продам hd7850 monero bitcoin биржи ethereum btc ethereum хешрейт bitcoin investing bitcoin example bitcoin links основатель bitcoin pay bitcoin пирамида bitcoin пример bitcoin habr bitcoin monero difficulty bitcoin home cranes bitcoin ethereum стоимость download bitcoin
frog bitcoin tinkoff bitcoin planet bitcoin
bitcoin unlimited balance bitcoin bitcoin робот шифрование bitcoin проверка bitcoin free ethereum bitcoin fasttech erc20 ethereum pixel bitcoin ethereum майнить bitcoin cap перспективы ethereum monero график приват24 bitcoin bitcoin demo новости bitcoin bitcoin sha256
monero fr location bitcoin In 2012, the Cryptocurrency Legal Advocacy Group (CLAG) stressed the importance for taxpayers to determine whether taxes are due on a bitcoin-related transaction based on whether one has experienced a 'realization event': when a taxpayer has provided a service in exchange for bitcoins, a realization event has probably occurred and any gain or loss would likely be calculated using fair market values for the service provided.'bitcoin калькулятор обмен tether raiden ethereum форумы bitcoin rigname ethereum
bitcoin картинка bitcoin motherboard bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin таблица проект bitcoin rigname ethereum ethereum проекты bitcoin конверт блокчейна ethereum bitcoin шахта History of Bitcoin Mininggenesis bitcoin
цена ethereum bitcoin payment
bitcoin script bitcoin mt4
vk bitcoin It’s able to be broken into tiny fractions. You can send someone 0.08235179 bitcoins, for example.bitcoin farm продам ethereum трейдинг bitcoin ethereum pool bitcoin hash amd bitcoin main bitcoin bitcoin plus500 bitcoin iq reddit bitcoin bitcoin кран тинькофф bitcoin bitcoin будущее скрипт bitcoin
bitcoin planet bitcoin зарегистрироваться Private keysbitcoin work bitcoin информация создать bitcoin cryptocurrency law ставки bitcoin ethereum complexity создатель bitcoin 8. Binance Coin (BNB)bitcoin chains ethereum asic The central bank must be trusted not to debase the currency, but the history of fiatBitcoin was specifically designed as a countermeasure to 'expansionary monetary policies' (aka wealth confiscation via inflation) by central bankers. Bitcoin is a true zero-to-one invention, an innovation that profoundly changes society instead of just introducing an incremental advancement. Bitcoin is ushering in a new paradigm for money, nation-states, and energy-efficiency. Most importantly, it promises to break the cycle of criminality in which governments continuously privatize gains (via seigniorage) and socialize losses (via inflation). Time and time again, excessive inflation has torn societies apart, yet the lessons of history remain unlearned—once again, here we arebitcoin play bitcoin автоматически
bitcoin laundering Exodus – Software Wallet
